Chromium (Cr), a trace element whose essentiality remains a topic of debate. While some evidence links it to insulin function and metabolic health, especially in cases of deficiency, there is no universally accepted method to measure chromium status, and some experts suggest it may have a pharmacological rather than a strictly essential function in healthy individuals.^[1][2] However, when found in elevated concentrations, chromium can pose significant health risks. It is included in the Heavy Metal Tested & Certified (HMTC) program’s Top 8 certification metals due to its potential toxicity, especially in the hexavalent form (Cr VI), which is a known carcinogen. Chromium contamination is a concern in both environmental and occupational settings, making it a priority for monitoring in food and consumer products. Understanding chromium exposure and its health implications is critical for safeguarding public health.

Overview

Chromium is a transition metal that exists in multiple oxidation states, with trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) and hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) being the most prevalent in environmental and industrial contexts. Cr(III) is considered an essential nutrient, albeit with limited evidence supporting its biological role in humans.^[2] In contrast, Cr(VI) is a highly toxic form, classified as a human carcinogen due to its ability to induce DNA damage and oxidative stress.^[3] The dual nature of chromium necessitates careful monitoring and regulation. Environmental exposure to chromium primarily occurs through contaminated water, soil, and air, often resulting from industrial activities such as electroplating, leather tanning, and stainless steel production.^[4] Certain consumer products and foods can be sources of chromium exposure. Given its potential health risks, chromium is included in the HMTC program’s Top 8 certification metals, emphasizing the importance of stringent testing and certification to safeguard public health.

Major Sources of Exposure

Chromium exposure occurs through various pathways, each with distinct risks depending on environmental, dietary, and occupational factors. These sources of exposure are significant because they can affect both individuals and communities, depending on their proximity to contaminated environments, occupational roles, and consumption habits.^[5]

Source Category	Examples and Routes
Environmental Exposure	One of the most prevalent sources of chromium exposure is the environment. Airborne chromium, especially Cr(VI), is released during industrial activities such as electroplating, steel manufacturing, and cement production.[6] Groundwater and surface water contamination are additional environmental risks in areas where industries discharge chromium-containing waste.[7] Soil contamination from industrial waste and improper disposal of chromium-containing substances also contributes to the risk, with chromium accumulating in the soil and being taken up by plants, which enter the food chain.[8]
Dietary Exposure	Dietary exposure to chromium is largely through the consumption of contaminated food. Chromium in its toxic Cr(VI) form can contaminate crops grown in polluted soil or irrigated with contaminated water.[9] Seafood, another common dietary source, can also contain elevated levels of chromium, especially in areas with significant industrial runoff into coastal waters.[10] Food packaging that uses chromium-based materials can leach small amounts of chromium into food products.[11]
Occupational Exposure	Workers in industries involving chromium use are at heightened risk of exposure.[12] Professions such as chrome plating, leather tanning, and stainless steel production expose employees to high levels of chromium, particularly Cr(VI), through inhalation of fumes and dust.[13] This exposure is often chronic, with workers potentially suffering from respiratory diseases, skin ulcers, or even lung cancer.[14] The aviation and automotive industries also present risks, as chromium is used in coatings and maintenance materials.

Adverse Health Effects

Chromium exists in multiple oxidation states, with trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) and hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) being the most significant in terms of human health.^[15] While Cr(III) is sometimes considered an essential nutrient in trace amounts, Cr(VI) is a potent toxicant and carcinogen.^[16] The health effects of chromium exposure are influenced by the chemical form, route of exposure, and dose.

Health Effect	Evidence and Mechanisms
Respiratory System	Inhalation of Cr(VI) compounds is a well-established cause of respiratory diseases, including lung cancer.[17] Chronic exposure can lead to conditions such as chronic bronchitis, asthma, and other pulmonary disorders.[18] Studies have shown that workers in industries involving chromium, such as electroplating and leather tanning, exhibit increased rates of lung cancer mortality.[19] The risk is dose-dependent, with higher exposures correlating with greater incidence.
Renal System	Both acute and chronic exposure to chromium can adversely affect kidney function.[20] Massive exposures, particularly to Cr(VI), have been associated with acute tubular injury, primarily at the proximal convoluted tubule.[21] Long-term exposure may contribute to chronic renal failure, especially when combined with other risk factors.[22]
Reproductive System	Emerging research indicates that Cr(VI) exposure may have neurotoxic effects. A review by Wise Jr. (2022) highlights that Cr(VI) can impair childhood learning and attention development, olfactory function, social memory and may contribute to motor neuron diseases. Animal studies have demonstrated elevated markers of oxidative damage and redox stress, with widespread neurodegeneration.
Neurological Effects	Emerging research indicates that Cr(VI) exposure may have neurotoxic effects. A review by Wise Jr. (2022) highlights that Cr(VI) can impair childhood learning and attention development, olfactory function, and social memory and may contribute to motor neuron diseases.[23] Animal studies have demonstrated elevated markers of oxidative damage and redox stress, with widespread neurodegeneration.[24]
Carcinogenicity	Cr(VI) is classified as a human carcinogen, primarily through inhalation exposure in occupational settings.[25] It has been associated with lung cancer, and some studies suggest potential links to cancers in other tissues, including the gastrointestinal and central nervous systems.[26] The carcinogenicity of Cr(VI) is attributed to its ability to induce DNA damage and oxidative stress.[27]

Consumer Relevance

Chromium exposure is a pertinent concern across various facets of daily life, from the foods we consume to the products we use. Understanding these exposure pathways is important for mitigating health risks, especially for vulnerable populations such as infants, children, and pregnant individuals.

Product Category	Presence and Source
Canned Foods	Canned fruits, vegetables, and beverages may contain chromium due to the migration of chromium from the metal packaging (often tin-coated with chromium).[28] This exposure can occur when the chromium leaches into the food, especially under heat or acidic conditions, raising concerns for long-term ingestion.
Rice	Rice from regions with contaminated water or soil, can absorb chromium.[29] This occurs because chromium is present in the soil from industrial pollution. Rice plants take up the chromium, which can then be consumed by humans, in areas where the soil has high chromium levels.[30] In some cases, rice processing methods can also contribute to chromium contamination.
Fish	Fish and other seafood, especially from contaminated waters, are a significant source of chromium.[31] Chromium can bioaccumulate in aquatic ecosystems, especially in industrialized regions where chromium-containing wastewater is improperly disposed of.[32] Consuming seafood poses a health risk, as it may contain elevated levels of chromium.
Baby Food	Chromium contamination has been detected in baby food products, such as purees and cereals, particularly when these are made with ingredients grown in soil contaminated with chromium.[33] Given the susceptibility of infants to toxic substances, this exposure is of particular concern for long-term health.
Cosmetics	Study reveals that certain cosmetics, such as eye shadows, dyes, and nail polishes, may contain chromium compounds.[34] Prolonged dermal exposure, especially if the skin is broken or irritated, can lead to allergic reactions, skin sensitivity, or more severe health consequences. Chromium in cosmetics is a known cause of contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals.[35]
Food Packaging	Chromium-based compounds are used in food packaging materials to enhance their durability and resistance to corrosion, and can leach into the food, especially under high heat or acidic conditions.[36] Long-term consumption of food stored in chromium-treated packaging materials can lead to slow but cumulative exposure to the metal.

Regulatory Snapshot

Global regulatory standards for chromium differ significantly depending on the chemical form. The most stringent restrictions are placed on hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), which is classified as a group I human carcinogen agent by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) when inhaled.^[37] Trivalent chromium (Cr(III)) is considered far less toxic and is even an essential trace element in human nutrition. In the European Union, Cr(VI) is classified as a Substance of Very High Concern (SVHC) under the REACH Regulation, with stringent restrictions on its use, especially in industries like electroplating.^[38] In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) enforces a permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 5 µg/m³ for Cr(VI) in workplaces.^[39] The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets a maximum allowable level of 100 µg/L for chromium in drinking water, with some states adopting stricter limits.^[40] The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has assessed the safety of chromium in food and drinking water, concluding that current exposure levels are not a health concern, as chromium in food is assumed to be in the non-toxic Cr(III) form.^[41] These regulations reflect a global effort to mitigate chromium exposure, with ongoing updates in response to emerging research and technology. However, there is a lack of consistency in these regulations, especially concerning non-drinking water exposures like food and air.

Implications for the HMTC Program

The HMTC Program applies the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle to ensure that chromium levels in food contact materials are minimized to the lowest possible concentrations without compromising the functionality or safety of the materials. By prioritizing the reduction of chromium exposure, especially the carcinogenic Cr(VI) form, the HMTC Program aims to provide consumer protection. This commitment to stringent testing and regulation ensures that products are safe for all consumers, including vulnerable groups like infants and children. Adherence to the ALARA principle strengthens transparency, providing consumers with confidence in the safety of the products they use. As global regulations around chromium tighten, businesses that already align with these best practices will be better positioned to meet future compliance standards, demonstrating proactive consumer protection and a pediatric-first approach.

Research Feed

References

1. Chromium – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.. Henriksen, C., & Bügel, S. (2023).. (Food & Nutrition Research, 67)
2. Chromium – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.. Henriksen, C., & Bügel, S. (2023).. (Food & Nutrition Research, 67)
3. Health hazards of hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) and its microbial reduction.. Sharma, P., Singh, S. P., Parakh, S. K., & Tong, Y. W. (2022).. (Bioengineered, 13(3), 4923.)
4. Health hazards of hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) and its microbial reduction.. Sharma, P., Singh, S. P., Parakh, S. K., & Tong, Y. W. (2022).. (Bioengineered, 13(3), 4923.)
5. Adverse Human Health Effects of Chromium by Exposure Route: A Comprehensive Review Based on Toxicogenomic Approach.. Shin, D. Y., Lee, S. M., Jang, Y., Lee, J., Lee, C. M., Cho, E., & Seo, Y. R. (2023).. (International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(4), 3410.)
6. Current Understanding of Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)] Neurotoxicity and New Perspectives.. Young, J. L., Cai, J., & Cai, L. (2021).. (Environment International, 158, 106877.)
7. Chromium Pollution in European Water, Sources, Health Risk, and Remediation Strategies: An Overview.. Tumolo, M., Ancona, V., De Paola, D., Losacco, D., Campanale, C., Massarelli, C., & Uricchio, V. F. (2020).. (International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(15), 5438.)
8. Chromium contamination and effect on environmental health and its remediation: A sustainable approaches.. Prasad, S., Yadav, K. K., Kumar, S., Gupta, N., Cabral-Pinto, M. M., Rezania, S., Radwan, N., & Alam, J. (2021).. (Journal of Environmental Management, 285, 112174.)
9. Chromium contamination and effect on environmental health and its remediation: A sustainable approaches.. Prasad, S., Yadav, K. K., Kumar, S., Gupta, N., Cabral-Pinto, M. M., Rezania, S., Radwan, N., & Alam, J. (2021).. (Journal of Environmental Management, 285, 112174.)
10. A Systematic Review on Contamination of Marine Species by Chromium and Zinc: Effects on Animal Health and Risk to Consumer Health.. Ramos-Filho, A. M., Rodrigues, A., & Conte-Junior, C. A. (2025).. (Journal of Xenobiotics, 15(4), 121.)
11. Food Packaging and Chemical Migration: A Food Safety Perspective.. Seref, N., & Cufaoglu, G. (2025).. (Journal of Food Science, 90(5), e70265.)
12. Chromium – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.. Henriksen, C., & Bügel, S. (2023).. (Food & Nutrition Research, 67)
13. Human exposure to chromite mining pollution, the toxicity mechanism and health impact.. Khan, C., Malik, R. N., & Chen, J. (2024).. (Heliyon, 10(21), e40083.)
14. Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Part I. Hazard assessment of non-cancer health effects.. Hessel, E. V., Staal, Y. C., Piersma, A. H., Den Braver-Sewradj, S. P., & Ezendam, J. (2021).. (Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 126, 105048.)
15. Current Understanding of Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)] Neurotoxicity and New Perspectives.. Young, J. L., Cai, J., & Cai, L. (2021).. (Environment International, 158, 106877.)
16. Recent developments in essentiality of trivalent chromium and toxicity of hexavalent chromium: Implications on human health and remediation strategies.. Monga, A., Fulke, A. B., & Dasgupta, D. (2022).. (Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 7, 100113.)
17. Inhalation cancer risk assessment of hexavalent chromium based on updated mortality for Painesville chromate production workers.. Proctor, D. M., Suh, M., Mittal, L., Hirsch, S., Salgado, R. V., Bartlett, C., Landingham, C. V., Rohr, A., & Crump, K. (2015).. (Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 26(2), 224.)
18. Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Part I. Hazard assessment of non-cancer health effects.. Hessel, E. V., Staal, Y. C., Piersma, A. H., Den Braver-Sewradj, S. P., & Ezendam, J. (2021).. (Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 126, 105048.)
19. Occupational cancers in leather tanning industries: A short review.. Rastogi, S. K., Kesavachandran, C., Mahdi, F., & Pandey, A. (2007).. (Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 11(1), 3.)
20. Mechanism of chromium-induced toxicity in lungs, liver, and kidney and their ameliorative agents.. Chakraborty, R., Renu, K., Eladl, M. A., El-Sherbiny, M., Elsherbini, D. M. A., Mirza, A. K., Vellingiri, B., Iyer, M., Dey, A., & Valsala Gopalakrishnan, A. (2022).. (Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 151, 113119.)
21. Hexavalent chromium intoxication induces intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis in human renal cells.. Wu, H., Lin, C., Wang, Y., Lin, J., Yen, C., Liu, H., Wu, L., Chen, W., Shih, L., & Yeh, J. (2019).. (Molecular Medicine Reports, 21(2), 851.)
22. The decline in kidney function with chromium exposure is exacerbated with co-exposure to lead and cadmium.. Tsai, T., Kuo, C., Pan, W., Chung, Y., Chen, C., Wu, T., & Wang, S. (2017).. (Kidney International, 92(3), 710-720.)
23. Current Understanding of Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)] Neurotoxicity and New Perspectives.. Young, J. L., Cai, J., & Cai, L. (2021).. (Environment International, 158, 106877.)
24. Current Understanding of Hexavalent Chromium [Cr(VI)] Neurotoxicity and New Perspectives.. Young, J. L., Cai, J., & Cai, L. (2021).. (Environment International, 158, 106877.)
25. Chromium – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023.. Henriksen, C., & Bügel, S. (2023).. (Food & Nutrition Research, 67)
26. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of chromium compounds in humans.. Costa M, Klein CB.. (Crit Rev Toxicol. 2006 Feb;36(2):155-63.)
27. Health hazards of hexavalent chromium (Cr (VI)) and its microbial reduction.. Sharma, P., Singh, S. P., Parakh, S. K., & Tong, Y. W. (2022).. (Bioengineered, 13(3), 4923.)
28. TIN-PLATE CORROSION IN CANNED FOODS.. Nawal Abdelgayoum Abdelrahman (2015).. (Journal of Global Biosciences. 4. 2966-2971.)
29. Food Packaging and Chemical Migration: A Food Safety Perspective.. Seref, N., & Cufaoglu, G. (2025).. (Journal of Food Science, 90(5), e70265.)
30. Chromium contamination in paddy soil-rice systems and associated human health risks in Pakistan.. Ali, W., Zhang, H., Mao, K., Shafeeque, M., Aslam, M. W., Yang, X., Zhong, L., Feng, X., & Podgorski, J. (2022).. (Science of The Total Environment, 826, 153910.)
31. A Systematic Review on Contamination of Marine Species by Chromium and Zinc: Effects on Animal Health and Risk to Consumer Health.. Ramos-Filho, A. M., Rodrigues, A., & Conte-Junior, C. A. (2025).. (Journal of Xenobiotics, 15(4), 121.)
32. A Systematic Review on Contamination of Marine Species by Chromium and Zinc: Effects on Animal Health and Risk to Consumer Health.. Ramos-Filho, A. M., Rodrigues, A., & Conte-Junior, C. A. (2025).. (Journal of Xenobiotics, 15(4), 121.)
33. Evaluation of Heavy Metals in Commercial Baby Foods.. Garuba OD, Anglin JC, Good S, Olufemi SE, Oyawoye OM, Sodipe A.. (Arch Food Nutr Sci. 2024;8:012-020.)
34. Health risks from heavy metals in cosmetic products available in the online consumer market.. Kicińska, A., & Kowalczyk, M. (2025).. (Scientific Reports, 15, 316.)
35. Heavy metals in contact dermatitis: A review.. Chamani, S., Mobasheri, L., Rostami, Z., Zare, I., Naghizadeh, A., & Mostafavi, E. (2023).. (Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 79, 127240.)
36. Food Packaging and Chemical Migration: A Food Safety Perspective.. Seref N, Cufaoglu G.. (J Food Sci. 2025 May;90(5):e70265.)
37. Hexavalent chromium: Regulation and health effects.. Alvarez, C. C., Bravo Gómez, M. E., & Hernández Zavala, A. (2021).. (Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology, 65, 126729.)
38. ECHA proposes restrictions on chromium(VI) substances to protect health. European Chemicals Agency. (ECHA/NR/25/11)
39. Occupational exposure to hexavalent chromium. Final rule.. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), Department of Labor.. (Fed Regist. 2006 Feb 28;71(39):10099-385)
40. Chromium in Drinking Water. UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. (Last updated on February 20, 2025)
41. Scientific Opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of chromium in food and drinking water.. EFSA Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain (CONTAM) (2014).. (EFSA Journal, 12(3), 3595.)