Clinical Pharmacist and Master’s student in Clinical Pharmacy with research interests in pharmacovigilance, behavioral interventions in mental health, and AI applications in clinical decision support. Experience includes digital health research with Bloomsbury Health (London) and pharmacovigilance practice in patient support programs. Published work covers drug awareness among healthcare providers, postpartum depression management, and patient safety reporting. 
Clinical Pharmacist and Master’s student in Clinical Pharmacy with research interests in pharmacovigilance, behavioral interventions in mental health, and AI applications in clinical decision support. Experience includes digital health research with Bloomsbury Health (London) and pharmacovigilance practice in patient support programs. Published work covers drug awareness among healthcare providers, postpartum depression management, and patient safety reporting. What was reviewed?
This review synthesizes current evidence on electrochemical biosensors for heavy metals as applied to food, water, and soil matrices relevant to children’s exposure, with direct relevance to HTMC screening workflows. It compares electrochemical sensor classes, electrode modifiers, and analytical parameters used to detect nickel, lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and aluminum, and aligns these capabilities with rapid, portable compliance testing. The paper also frames toxicological rationales why low-level detection matters in pediatrics, linking measurement limits to health risk management. Figures outline sensor typologies, ECIS, FET, and potentiometric platforms and their target ions, providing a technology map that can be operationalized in certification protocols.
Who was reviewed?
The evidence base covers food safety and environmental monitoring literature and pediatric toxicology framing rather than human subjects. Heavy metal exposure pathways in children are summarized, with a visual on organ system impacts, and source diagrams for dietary and environmental routes, supporting matrix selection for HTMC testing, including fish, rice, vegetables, spices, dairy, soil, dust, and drinking water. The review highlights children’s higher vulnerability and body-weight–adjusted intake, motivating lower reporting limits in certification. See the child health schematic and exposure flowcharts for Ni, Hg, Pb, Cd, and Al.
Most important findings
| Critical point | Details |
|---|---|
| Sensor families and analyte coverage | The review details ECIS, FET, potentiometric, voltammetric, amperometric, and impedimetric modes; Figures on page 2 map platforms to ions, guiding method selection for HTMC test menus. |
| Performance advantages and limits | Electrochemical sensors offer high sensitivity, fast response, portability, and low cost, but selectivity can be compromised by co-ions, pH, organics, and O₂; trace-level detection can be limited for some species without preconcentration. These risks inform HTMC validation and interference testing. |
| Nickel (Ni) methods for high-risk foods | Anodic stripping voltammetry with modified electrodes (e.g., AuNPs) dominates for Hg²⁺; nanomaterial modifiers boost sensitivity, though reproducibility and cleaning protocols remain challenges. Operating windows for CV, EIS, and DPV are reported for method transfer. |
| Mercury (Hg) methods and ASV dominance | Anodic stripping voltammetry with modified electrodes (e.g., AuNPs) dominates for Hg²⁺; nanomaterial modifiers boost sensitivity though reproducibility and cleaning protocols remain challenges. Operating windows for CV, EIS, and DPV are reported for method transfer. |
| Lead (Pb) detection aligned to regulatory limits | For Pb²⁺, SWV/SWASV with bismuth-based or carbon nanostructured electrodes achieve sub-μg/L LODs, compatible with the EU Drinking Water target of 5 μg/L by 2036; pH-dependent speciation and Pourbaix insights are provided for method robustness. |
| Arsenic (As) field protocols | Gold electrodes with ASV (often with graphene or nano-Au) deliver low-μg/L detection, with deposition/stripping sequences and pH-1 conditions described. |
| Cadmium (Cd) miniaturized sensing | SPEs and graphdiyne or Prussian-blue/PEDOT modifiers enable ppb to sub-ppb detection; square-wave stripping sequences and electrode cleaning steps are specified for reproducible HTMC workflows. |
| Aluminum (Al) emerging assays | Fewer biosensors exist, but SWASV with 8-hydroxyquinoline and LIG-based EIS show promising LODs; Table 6 summarizes early platforms and underscores need for pediatric-focused validation. |
| Pediatric exposure context for certification | Visuals on pages 6–7 indicate high-mercury fish, lead sources, cadmium-rich foods, and neonatal aluminum sources, guiding HTMC priority matrices and sampling plans. |
Key implications
For HTMC, the primary regulatory impacts include aligning sensor LODs with EU and WHO benchmarks while demonstrating matrix-specific selectivity. Certification requirements should mandate validated ASV or DPV methods with SPE formats and interference studies. Industry applications include rapid lot release for high-risk foods. Research gaps concern aluminum and in-field reproducibility. Practical recommendations prioritize preconcentration, pH control, standard additions, and portable potentiostats.
Citation
Anchidin-Norocel L, Gutt G, Tătaranu E, Amariei S. Electrochemical sensors and biosensors: effective tools for detecting heavy metals in water and food with possible implications for children’s health. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2024;19:100643. doi:10.1016/j.ijoes.2024.100643
Nickel is a widely used transition metal found in alloys, batteries, and consumer products that also contaminates food and water. High exposure is linked to allergic contact dermatitis, organ toxicity, and developmental effects, with children often exceeding EFSA’s tolerable daily intake of 3 μg/kg bw. Emerging evidence shows nickel crosses the placenta, elevating risks of preterm birth and congenital heart defects, underscoring HMTC’s stricter limits to safeguard vulnerable populations.
Lead is a neurotoxic heavy metal with no safe exposure level. It contaminates food, consumer goods and drinking water, causing cognitive deficits, birth defects and cardiovascular disease. HMTC’s rigorous lead testing applies ALARA principles to protect infants and consumers and to prepare brands for tightening regulations.
Cadmium is a persistent heavy metal that accumulates in kidneys and bones. Dietary sources include cereals, cocoa, shellfish and vegetables, while smokers and industrial workers receive higher exposures. Studies link cadmium to kidney dysfunction, bone fractures and cancer.
Mercury (Hg) is a neurotoxic heavy metal found in various consumer products and environmental sources, making it a major public health concern. Its regulation is critical to protect vulnerable populations from long-term health effects, such as neurological impairment and cardiovascular disease. The HMTC program ensures that products meet the highest standards for mercury safety.
Arsenic is a naturally occurring metalloid that ranks first on the ATSDR toxic substances list. Inorganic arsenic contaminates water, rice and consumer products, and exposure is linked to cardiovascular disease, cognitive deficits, low birth weight and cancer. HMTC’s stringent certification applies ALARA principles to protect vulnerable populations.
Aluminum is a pervasive metal found in a wide range of consumer products, from food packaging and cookware to medications and personal care items. Although often overlooked, aluminum exposure can accumulate over time, posing long-term health risks, especially to vulnerable populations like infants, children, and individuals with kidney conditions.
